Incidence of mental disorders in soldiers deployed to Afghanistan who have or have not experienced a life-threatening military incident-a quasi-experimental cohort study.

Introduction: There is very good international research on deployment-related mental disorders in military personnel. The incidence rates show a very wide range. A new strategy is therefore proposed in order to achieve better standardization and thus better comparability of the studies. In addition to a non-deployed comparison group, we propose to compare deployed soldiers with and without critical military incidents during the deployment. This additional distinction makes it possible to differentiate between the influencing variables of actual threat and general deployment stress. Methods: N = 358 male combat soldiers deployed to Afghanistan were included in the study. Clinical interviews were conducted several days before deployment and after deployment. Of them, n = 80 soldiers suffered a life-threatening military incident during deployment, whereas 278 soldiers did not. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated for the groups with and without critical military incidents and the new onset for PTSD, anxiety disorders and depressive disorders. Results: When comparing both groups, we found significantly higher 1-year incidence rates in the group with critical military incidents: 6.4% vs. 1.1% (OR 6.2) for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); 7.0% vs. 1.1% (OR 6.5) for depression; and 15.9% vs. 2.8% (OR 6.6) for anxiety disorders. The 1-year incidence rate of mental multimorbidity (PTSD with anxiety or depression) was 4.8% vs. 0.4% (OR 12.0). Discussion: These results indicate that life-threatening military incidents during military deployment are important to mental health. As the different threat levels of the various missions are taken into account, additional predictors could be determined more precisely in further research.

Post-traumatic stress disorder among COVID-19-affected high-risk cardiac patients.

BACKGROUND: During the first coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) wave there was a high prevalence of mental health impairments and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), particularly in patients with comorbid cardiac diseases. METHODS: During waves 2-5, all hospitalized patients with cardiac problems and suspected COVID-19 were eligible to participate in this study. RESULTS: The prevalence of PTSD was 31.4% (n=48) in 153 participants. No age- and gender-related differences for PTSD were found. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence is lower than during the first wave but higher than in patients reported in other studies who were isolated at home. Routine mental health assessments are strongly recommended for patients at risk.

Association between different dimensions of anger and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in at-risk cardiovascular patients during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Introduction: The common connecting factor between PTSD and cardiovascular diseases lies in the disruption of the stress processing system. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in stress levels worldwide. Due to the life-threatening situation of affected risk patients, this also led to the accumulation of post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). The influence of anger on cardiovascular diseases has hardly been investigated so far. The focus of this study is on anger regulation in cardiovascular risk patients. The COVID-19 pandemic is considered as an additional stressor in this study, but not as a separate entity. The hypothesis is that individuals with inward anger are more prone to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Methods: As part of the routine examination, all patients who were hospitalized between January 1st, 2021 and May 31st, 2022 with high-risk cardiovascular diseases were included. A total of N = 153 (84.1%) subjects participated in the study. On admission, anger (STAXI-2) and PTSD (PCL-5) were assessed using questionnaires. The relationship between different domains of anger and PTSS was examined. Results: Inwardly directed anger was more pronounced in this population than in a standard sample (+1 SD) and had a significant impact on the presence of PTSD (B = -0.72, p < 0.001). Additionally, correlations were found between inward-directed anger and PTSD, as well as all other anger expressions studied and the PTSD total score. Discussion: It can be assumed that anger and its regulation are relevant factors for both cardiac diseases and PTSD. The study results can be used for prevention, rehabilitation and therapeutic measures. However, the impact of inner anger on PTSD is theoretical and based on statistical testing. A confirmatory longitudinal study is needed to substantiate these results.

The impact of the pandemic on the perception of stress and danger, and the adjustment of psychiatric and general medical staff of German military hospitals.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic changed not only the working conditions but also the private conditions we live in. Health care professionals especially were confronted with multiple stressors, e.g., the risk of infection, lack of staff, and high workloads. Methods: To estimate some of the pandemic-related impacts this anonymous personnel survey was conducted in two German military hospitals (Hamburg and Berlin). This study presents a comparative analysis of the hospital staff in general vs. the psychiatric personnel (N = 685) at two measurement time points (MTPs) in April 2021 (n = 399) and December 2021 (n = 286). The survey contains the German version of the Covid Stress Scale (CSS) to assess the perceived level of pandemic-related stress, the Patient Health Questionnaire (German Version: PHQ-D) to screen for three major mental disorders, and the adjustment disorder-New Module (ADNM) to estimate the problems of adaptation to change. Results: The results showed a process of adaptation over the two MTPs with significant stress reduction at MTP2 in the general staff. The psychiatric staff did not report significantly higher pandemic-related symptoms. Quite the contrary, not only did the CSS show significantly lower xenophobia, traumatic stress, and compulsive checking, but the PHQ also showed lower stress symptoms and somatic symptoms at both MTPs. Also, the ADNM scores delivered evidence for a more effective adaptation process in psychiatric personnel (e.g., depressive mood, avoidance, anxiety). Discussion: The presented results must be interpreted while taking the unique situations of German military clinics into account. The supply of protective material was sufficient and there was no dramatic shortage of psychiatric staff during the pandemic. The inpatients were quite often (40%) elective treatments for trauma-related disorders, which could be discontinued in the case of a COVID-19 infection. The results of this study showed good adaptative skills among the psychiatric staff in military hospitals, which could be interpreted as a sign of good resilience. This might have led to lower stress-related symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Mistrust Among Rescue Workers After the Terrorist Attack in Berlin in 2016 - Gender-Specific Health Inequality.

OBJECTIVES: In this single-case-by-group comparison, we examine whether previously found cisgender differences in paranoid ideation after a terror attack are also seen in a transgender male emergency worker. METHODS: Sixty emergency personnel who were exposed to the 2016 terror attack in Berlin were evaluated 3 to 4 and 21-25 mo after the attack. RESULTS: On paranoid ideation, the transgender male showed higher scores than cisgender males (+2 standard deviations [SD]) and the overall group (+1 SD). CONCLUSIONS: This underpins the previously identified gender effects. It would be useful to consider specified pre- and postdeployment modules that take cis- and transgender differences into account.

Post-traumatic stress disorder in medical workers involved in earthquake response: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Introduction: Medical workers involved in responding to the earthquake are exposed to frightening scenes and witness dead bodies and severely injured moaning people, predisposing them to multiple mental health consequences. This study was aimed to determine the prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) after earthquakes among medical workers using a systematic review and meta-analysis. Materials and methods: The review study was performed following PRISMA guidelines, and the study's protocol was registered in PROSPERO with the code CRD42022333069. The data resources of Google Scholar, Science Direct, Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus were searched to specify the related studies. To perform meta-analysis, the random effects model was utilized, and the I2 index was considered to assess heterogeneity between studies. The STATA software was used for data analysis. Results: In the initial data resources search, 1399 articles were identified. From these articles, 13 were finally chosen for meta-analysis and quality assessment. The meta-analysis results indicated that the prevalence of post-earthquake PTSD among medical workers involved in the earthquake response was 16.37% (95% CI: 11.63-21.11, I2 = 97.33%, p = 0 < 0.001). Conclusion: The medical workers involved in response to the earthquake have a relatively high risk of PTSD in the short and long term. Therefore, medical workers involved in response to disasters should undergo screening for mental health disorders before and after disasters and receive the necessary training with regard to stress management, psychological resilience, and how to express their feelings and emotions.

Effects of stress on neural processing of combat-related stimuli in deployed soldiers: an fMRI study.

Severe trauma exposure may lead to symptoms of both posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. Neuroanatomical theories suggest that both disorders may share imbalances in fronto-limbic circuits. Longitudinal studies are necessary to better understand the impact of a stressful life situation on potential long-term fronto-limbic imbalances. Here we investigated soldiers neural processing of combat-related stimuli versus negative affective stimuli before and after the deployment in different war zones. In the final analysis we included 104 deployed soldiers (combat group) and 36 soldiers that were not deployed (control group). Behaviorally, we found a significant group by time interaction regarding depression symptom scores with an increase in the combat group. Depressive symptoms were subclinical. On the neural level, neither the whole brain analysis nor the region of interest (ROI) analyses including frontal and limbic ROIs revealed any significant results in the group by time interaction. However, extracted ROI values of the group by time interaction of amygdala and hippocampus were positively associated with the change in depression symptom scores in the combat group, but not in the control group. These results highlight the role of depression in individuals that experience stressful life situations. Future studies may need to investigate the role of depressive symptoms after trauma exposure with different tasks that may be particularly sensitive to changes due to depressive symptoms.

Investigating the impact of terrorist attacks on the mental health of emergency responders: systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Terrorist attacks have strong psychological effects on rescue workers, and there is a demand for effective and targeted interventions. AIMS: The present systematic review aims to examine the mental health outcomes of exposed emergency service personnel over time, and to identify risk and resilience factors. METHOD: A literature search was carried out on PubMed and PubPsych until 27 August 2021. Only studies with a real reported incident were included. The evaluation of the study quality was based on the Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies, and the synthesis used the 'Guidance on the Conduct of Narrative Synthesis in Systematic Reviews'. RESULTS: Thirty-three articles including 159 621 individuals were identified, relating to five different incidents with a post-event time frame ranging from 2 weeks to 13 years. The post-traumatic stress disorder prevalence rates were between 1.3 and 16.5%, major depression rates were between 1.3 and 25.8%, and rates for specific anxiety disorders were between 0.7 and 14%. The highest prevalence rates were found after the World Trade Center attacks. Reported risk factors were gender, no emergency service training, peritraumatic dissociation, spatial proximity to the event and social isolation. CONCLUSIONS: The inconsistency of the prevalence rates may be attributable to the different severities of the incidents. Identified risk factors could be used to optimise training for emergency personnel before and after catastrophic events. Voluntary repetitive screening of rescue workers for mental health symptoms is recommended.

The Prevalence of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Among Health Care Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Umbrella Review and Meta-Analysis.

Introduction: Frontline health care workers (HCWs) have had an increased risk of developing health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to physical illness, they have experienced mental health challenges, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The aim of this study is to investigate the prevalence of PTSD among HCWs during the COVID-19 pandemic via an umbrella review and meta-analysis. Methods: This study was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline to perform a systematic literature search using various medical databases (Web of science, PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane, ProQuest, Science Direct, Embase, and Google scholar). The search included all articles published through the first of January 2020 the end of March 2021. The systematic review and meta-analysis studies that reported the prevalence of PTSD among health care workers were included in the study, and studies that reported the prevalence of PTSD in normal people or other epidemics were excluded. The random effects model was used to perform a meta-analysis, and the I 2 index was used to evaluate heterogeneity among studies. Publication bias was assessed using the Egger test. Data was analyzed using STATA (version 14) software. Results: The initial literature search yielded 145 studies. After excluding duplicates and assessing the quality of the studies, 7 studies were selected for meta-analysis. The results showed that the overall prevalence of PTSD among HCWs during the COVID-19 pandemic was 13.52% (95% CI: 9.06-17.98, I 2 = 65.5%, p = 0.008). Conclusion: There is a high prevalence of PTSD among frontline HCWs during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is important to invest in efforts to screen HCWs for mental health disorders such as PTSD and provide them with mental health support.

Proximity to COVID-19 on Mental Health Symptoms among Hospital Medical Staff.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to patients with COVID-19 can have a significant impact on mental health of hospital medical staff. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of proximity to patients with COVID-19 considering occupational position and gender on the mental health of hospital staff. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: N=78 participants were included in the study, with n=40 of them with direct contact to patients with COVID-19 (51%); eight had contact with patients suspected of having COVID-19 (10%), and n=30 with no direct contact to people with COVID-19 (39%). RESULTS: Multinomial regression analyses showed that proximity had a negative (inverse) influence on avoidance behaviour as part of PTSD, physical symptoms, somatization, compulsiveness and anger expression-in as tendency to suppress anger. In addition, there was a significant impact of the female gender on increased physical symptoms, while age, work experience and occupation had no further influence. CONCLUSIONS: These results that hospital medical staff is less psychologically stressed when closer to COVID-19 patients are inconsistent with previous studies. Self-efficacy and locus of control in these situations are relevant for processing the trauma. In summary, perception of personal risk is essential. Proximity is believed to be a proxy variable for personal risk perception. As a synopsis of these results, regular briefings of the hospital staff are recommended to prevent psychological impairment. They should contain specific information about conditions in the affected wards and the risk of infection, which could help reduce risk perception of medical personnel.

Gender Differences in Anger Among Hospital Medical Staff Exposed to Patients with COVID-19.

Purpose: Occupational exposure to patients with COVID-19 is a stress factor. The aim of this study was to assess gender differences in anger among medical hospital staff. Methods: N=78 hospital employees with direct or indirect contact to patients with COVID-19 completed State-Trait Inventory-2. Results: Female personnel showed higher scores in the main "trait anger" scale and its subscale "anger temperament," whereas "anger control-out" was significant lower. Direct patient contact had no influence. Conclusion: More specific training for female hospital staff could achieve health-related equity. Focusing on anger as a leading indicator could lead to better prevention and self-monitoring. Registered at Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04368312).

The brain at war: effects of stress on brain structure in soldiers deployed to a war zone.

In search of the neural basis of severe trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a multitude of cross-sectional studies have been conducted, most of them pointing at structural deficits in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). Since cross-sectional studies are silent to causality, the core question remains: which brain structural alterations constitute a risk factor for disease and therewith precede the stressor, and which brain regions may undergo alterations as a consequence of exposure to the stressor. We assessed 121 soldiers before and after deployment to regions of war and 40 soldiers as controls, who were not deployed. Analysis using voxel-based morphometry revealed volumetric reductions in the ACC, vmPFC (region of interest analysis, effect does not survive conservative multiple test correction) and in bilateral thalamus (whole-brain analysis) in the deployment group. Remarkably, the ACC and vmPFC volume decrease was not limited to the period of deployment, but continued over the following 6 months after deployment. Volumetric reductions did not correlate with increases in PTSD symptoms. The volume decreases in medial prefrontal cortex and thalamus seem to be driven by trauma exposure rather than a vulnerability factor for PTSD. However, data indicate that the volume decrease in medial prefrontal cortex surpasses the time period of deployment. This may hint at an initiated pathobiological process below a symptom threshold, potentially paving the way to future mental health problems.

The INFluence of Remote monitoring on Anxiety/depRession, quality of lifE, and Device acceptance in ICD patients: a prospective, randomized, controlled, single-center trial.

BACKGROUND: Impact of telemedicine with remote patient monitoring (RPM) in implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) patients on clinical outcomes has been investigated in various clinical settings with divergent results. However, role of RPM on patient-reported-outcomes (PRO) is unclear. The INFRARED-ICD trial aimed to investigate the effect of RPM in addition to standard-of-care on PRO in a mixed ICD patient cohort. METHODS AND RESULTS: Patients were randomized to RPM (n = 92) or standard in-office-FU (n = 88) serving as control group (CTL). At baseline and on a monthly basis over 1 year, study participants completed the EQ-5D questionnaire for the primary outcome Quality of Life (QoL), the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and the Florida Patient Acceptance Survey questionnaire for secondary outcomes. Demographic characteristics (82% men, mean age 62.3 years) and PRO at baseline were not different between RPM and CTL. Primary outcome analysis showed that additional RPM was not superior to CTL with respect to QoL over 12 months [+ 1.2 vs. + 3.9 points in CTL and RPM group, respectively (p = 0.24)]. Pre-specified analyses could not identify subgroups with improved QoL by the use of RPM. Neither levels of anxiety (- 0.4 vs. - 0.3, p = 0.88), depression (+ 0.3 vs. ± 0.0, p = 0.38), nor device acceptance (+ 1.1 vs. + 1.6, p = 0.20) were influenced by additional use of RPM. CONCLUSION: The results of the present study show that PRO were not improved by RPM in addition to standard-of-care FU. Careful evaluation and planning of future trials in selected ICD patients are warranted before implementing RPM in routine practice.

Long-term effects of the terror attack in Berlin in 2016 on paranoid ideation in female emergency personnel.

In a pilot study, female emergency personnel showed increased paranoid ideation following a terror attack. This newly designed confirmatory study aims to replicate these previously found gender-specific results and investigate the progression of effects after 2 years. Participants were exposed and unexposed emergency personnel (n = 120). Exposed female versus exposed male personnel showed higher paranoid ideation at both time points. There was a group × time interaction effect in paranoid ideation: paranoid ideation increased over time in the exposed versus the unexposed female group. The same effect was observed with exposed female emergency personnel showing a significant 2-year post-deployment increase compared with the total group including unexposed female as well as exposed and unexposed male emergency personnel. There is, as yet, no conclusive explanation for this difference. Sexual harassment in a male-dominated profession may be a vulnerability factor. Differentiated preparation and follow-up for emergency responders is recommended moving towards health-related equality.

Impact of Crisis Intervention on the Mental Health Status of Emergency Responders Following the Berlin Terrorist Attack in 2016.

OBJECTIVE: The most common crisis intervention used with German rescue workers is Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM). Results regarding its effectiveness are inconsistent. A negative reinforcement of avoidance, due to premature termination of strong emotions during the Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD), may explain this. The effectiveness of the CISD after terror attacks in Germany has not yet been investigated. METHODS: All emergency responders deployed at the terror attack on Breitscheidplatz in Berlin were invited to take part in the study; 37 of the N = 55 participants had voluntarily participated in CISD; 18 had not. RESULTS: Participants with CISD showed lower quality of life in psychological health and higher depressive symptomatology. Of these, females had lower quality of life in social relationships, whereas males showed more posttraumatic stress symptoms. Emergency responders from non-governmental organizations had higher phobic anxiety. Emergency medical technicians showed more somatic and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSION: There is no conclusive explanation for why rescue workers with CISD score worse on certain measures. It is possible that CISD has a harmful influence due to negative reinforcement, or that there was a selection effect. Further research differentiating occupational group, sex, and type of event is necessary.

Longitudinal Mental Health Effects of the 2016 Terrorist Attack in Berlin on Various Occupational Groups of Emergency Service Personnel.

Emergency service personnel who respond to terrorist attacks may experience persistent stress following the event. This occupational stress must be examined in order to develop occupation-specific response preparation and follow-up measures. An explorative pilot study examined the occupational stress-related effects of the 2016 terrorist attack on Breitscheidplatz in Berlin on emergency service personnel. The present study examines whether the results of the pilot study can be replicated and whether the effects changed after 2 years. The participants were 60 emergency personnel (including 11 police officers and 24 firefighters) who were deployed to the attack, and a control group of 60 personnel (including 37 police officers and 21 firefighters) who were not deployed. Data on stress, quality of life, and current mental state were gathered 3 to 4 months after the attack and 18 to 21 months after the first survey. The data showed that police officers who responded to the attack had significantly higher levels of aggression and hostility at both time points, and firefighters had significantly lower levels of environmental quality of life at both time points. Quality of life in terms of physical health for firefighters could not be replicated. Due to the different types of stress experienced by emergency service personnel, a differentiated approach is necessary. More specific preparation and follow-up measures are necessary to counteract persistent stress. Further research in this area could lead to specific predeployment and postdeployment training measures.

German research perspectives on suicidality and the rationale for future multinational suicide prevention projects among military service personnel.

As a result of scientific publications indicating that the last two decades have seen an increase in the number of suicides in the US Armed Forces, the topic of suicide in the military of other countries, such as Germany, has also received a lot of attention in media and science alike. Risk factors for suicidal behaviour and suicide were identified in several research projects in the US, Canada, the UK, and Germany. Until now, German suicide research among military service personnel has mainly focused on epidemiological aspects of suicides and suicidality, individual risk factors, sub-groups at risk for suicide, suicides and deployment abroad, and associations of suicide and suicide attempts with acute mental disorders. The key findings are summarized in this review article. Efforts should be made to develop and evaluate risk group-focused and occupation-focused prevention and intervention programs. Future multinational studies should address potential differences between risk groups for fatal and non-fatal suicidal behaviour.

Challenges for Research into Military Investigations.

In cases of suspected violations of rules, regulations or the law by armed forces personnel, investigations are invariably mandatory. Military investigations differ from well-researched civilian criminal investigations. Differing from civilian police detectives, most military investigators - as disciplinary supervisors and military police personnel - have a number of tasks to accomplish, which include leading in combat and ensuring military readiness. Military investigations can lead to substantive negative or positive consequences for military readiness, including mental health, unit cohesion and subjective legal certainty. This impact on unit cohesion and mental health is influenced by any prior history of distress or trauma; military investigations are often preceded by contravention of internal disciplinary acts, complaints and traumatic events. This study explores factors in the differing military and legal systems of Germany and the United Kingdom (UK) that might help military personnel to successfully conduct investigations while ensuring deployment readiness and maintaining human rights.

Suicides between 2010 and 2014 in the German Armed Forces-Comparison of Suicide Registry Data and a German Armed Forces Survey.

BACKGROUND: The last 10 years have seen an increase in the number of suicides in the US Armed Forces. Accordingly, the topic of suicides in the German military has received a lot of attention in media and science alike. METHODS: This study retrospectively examined all suicides (N = 107) committed by active, nonretired German military personnel from 2010 to the end of 2014, analyzing archived medical records. In a second step, these data were compared to a representative German Armed Forces survey conducted in 2012 (N = 1,549). RESULTS: The following risk groups for suicide were identified: male (OR = 9.6), single (OR = 7.8), aged over 45 years (OR = 4.0), short period of service (<2 years; OR = 2.7), and low level of education (OR = 2.2). Surprisingly, military personnel with little experience in deployments abroad (<2 missions) showed double the risk (OR = 2.0) compared to those who had been deployed more than once. DISCUSSION: Multiple robustness checks show that being single, aged over 45 years, and having obtained a low level of education exhibit the most robust effects on suicide risk. CONCLUSION: Efforts should be made to develop and evaluate risk group-focused prevention programs. We conclude, that further studies should be initiated to show differences of risk groups between lethal and nonlethal suicidal behavior.

Effect of deployment related experiences on sleep quality of German soldiers after return from an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) mission to Afghanistan.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of experiencing potentially traumatic events during deployment on post-deployment sleep quality as measured by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and the Addendum for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI-A). Deployment related experiences were quantified on a standardised list of the Mental Health Advisory Team of the U.S. armed forces. The original sample consisted of 118 soldiers of the German armed forces who were deployed to Afghanistan for six months. The present analyses focused on data assessed after deployment (n = 70) and in a three-month follow-up (n = 51). Results indicate that immediately after return experiences during deployment had an independent significant effect on sleep quality but not three months later. Immediately after return depressive and stress symptoms significantly affected sleep quality while three months later somatic symptoms were significant. At both time points sleep prior to deployment was a significant predictor of sleep quality following deployment. Given the importance of sleep quality prior to deployment as a known independent risk factor for newly occurring mental disorders after deployment, these results underline the need to improve sleep quality already at an early stage.